Cytokines are small soluble proteins that are secreted by cells in response to various stimuli. They exercise their functions through pathways such as the JAK/STAT one, which works with three elements: receptor, kinase, and transcription factor. Thanks to that, many cytokines can transmit their signal, which can be different based on the type of cytokine involved. There are many classes of cytokines, but we’ll analyze more in detail interleukins and interferons. Interleukins are involved in inflammatory processes and immune system signal transmission. Interleukin 2 (IL-2) activates NK and T-cells against tumor cells and, for this reason, is implemented in cancer therapy. Recombinant IL-2, Aldesleukin, is indicated for the treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma and metastatic melanoma, with patients showing tumor regression. An interesting new study has reached phase II in the United States, where Aldesleukin is being associated with Pembrolizumab, a monoclonal antibody that targets PD-1, to get better results in cancer therapy. Another use of IL-2 can be found in Denileukin Diftitox, where the receptor binding domain of IL-2 was fused to the diphtheric toxin to be used in the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and other types of cancers. Interleukin 1 (IL-1) is a key mediator for inflammatory processes and, in particular, it has a role in the genesis of rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis. For this reason, its antagonist, IL-1Ra is harnessed to treat such inflammatory diseases through Anakinra, its recombinant, non-glycosylated form. Interferons are a class of cytokines named after their ability to interfere with viruses’ infections. Interferon alpha (IFN-α) is used in many cases due to its antiproliferative action, including leukemia and melanoma. A few options for interferon-alpha treatment are available in Italy, like Pegasys, the pegylated version of recombinant interferon α-2a, belonging to the second generation of this type of drug. Pegylation grants a longer half-life and a much higher efficacy rate to this medication, used to treat hematological cancers such as essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia vera. Interferon beta (IFN-β) finds its main application in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, although it has been proven effective in reducing cancer growth. In particular, the conjugation of IFN-β-1a with Trastuzumab has been recently studied for its antitumoral effect and longer half-life compared to IFN-β-1a alone. Finally, interferon gamma (IFN-γ), the only type II interferon, is a stimulant for the immune system used to treat chronic granulomatous disease and severe, malignant osteopetrosis, as well as kidney cancer and other tumors. Despite its antitumoral activity, it is also able to induce upregulation of PD-L1 on the surface of cancer cells, making them more resistant to the action of NK cells. A recent study, although, has proved this upregulation to work against the tumor, since PD-L1 acted as a biomarker for cancer cells that were sensitive to the action of IFN-γ, which outperformed the tumor-promoting effect of PD-L1.
Le citochine sono piccole proteine solubili che vengono secrete dalle cellule in risposta a vari stimoli. Esercitano le loro funzioni attraverso vie di segnalazione come quella chiamata JAK/STAT, la quale agisce tramite tre elementi: il recettore, la chinasi e il fattore di trascrizione. Grazie a essa molte citochine trasmettono i loro segnali, che possono essere diversi in base alle citochine coinvolte. Ci sono diverse classi di citochine, ma analizzeremo più nel dettaglio interleuchine e interferoni. Le interleuchine sono coinvolte nei processi infiammatori e nella trasmissione dei segnali del sistema immunitario. L’interleuchina 2 (IL-2) attiva le cellule NK e i linfociti T contro le cellule tumorali e, per questo motivo, viene implementata nella terapia del cancro. L’IL-2 ricombinante, Aldesleukin, è indicata per il trattamento di carcinoma metastatico a cellule renali e melanoma metastatico, con risultati di regressione tumorale. Un nuovo interessante studio ha raggiunto la fase II negli Stati Uniti, dove Aldesleukin è associato a Pembrolizumab, un anticorpo monoclonale indirizzato contro PD-1, per ottenere migliori risultati nella terapia antitumorale. Un altro utilizzo di IL-2 si può trovare in Denileukin Diftitox, dove il sito di IL-2 che lega il recettore è stato fuso alla tossina difterica per essere utilizzato nel trattamento del linfoma cutaneo a cellule T e altri tipi di cancro. L’interleuchina 1 (IL-1) è un mediatore chiave dei processi infiammatori e in particolare ha un ruolo nella genesi dell’artrite reumatoide e dell’aterosclerosi. Per questo motivo, il suo antagonista, IL-1Ra viene sfruttato per curare questi disturbi tramite Anakinra, la sua forma ricombinante e non glicosilata. Gli interferoni sono una classe di citochine chiamate in questo modo per la loro capacità di interferire con le infezioni virali. L’interferone alfa (IFN-α) è utilizzato in molti disturbi per via della sua azione antiproliferativa, comprendendo leucemia e melanoma. In Italia sono disponibili alcune opzioni di trattamento con interferone alfa, come ad esempio Pegasys, la versione peghilata dell’interferone α-2a, che appartiene alla seconda generazione di questo tipo di medicinale. La peghilazione garantisce un’emivita più lunga e una più alta efficacia a questa sostanza, la quale viene utilizzata per il trattamento di tumori ematologici come la trombocitemia essenziale e la policitemia vera. L’interferone beta (IFN-β) viene applicato principalmente nel trattamento della sclerosi multipla, anche se è stato dimostrato efficace per ridurre lo sviluppo del cancro. In particolare, la coniugazione di IFN-β-1a e Trastuzumab è stata studiata recentemente per il suo effetto antitumorale e un’emivita più lunga rispetto all’interferone β-1a da solo. In ultimo, l’interferone gamma (IFN-γ), l’unico interferone di tipo II, è uno stimolante del sistema immunitario utilizzato per curare la malattia granulomatosa cronica e l’osteopertosi maligna, come anche tumori ai reni e altri tipi di cancro. Nonostante la sua attività antitumorale, è anche in grado di indurre sovraespressione di PD-L1 sulla superficie delle cellule tumorali, rendendole più resistenti all’azione delle cellule NK. Uno studio recente, però, ha dimostrato che questa sovraespressione agisce contro il tumore, in quanto PD-L1 si comporta come un biomarker per le cellule tumorali sensibili all’azione dell’interferone gamma, che sorpassa l’effetto pro-tumorale di PD-L1.
Citochine: da mediatori dell’infiammazione ad agenti per la terapia del cancro
ANTONIOLI, FRANCESCA
2022/2023
Abstract
Cytokines are small soluble proteins that are secreted by cells in response to various stimuli. They exercise their functions through pathways such as the JAK/STAT one, which works with three elements: receptor, kinase, and transcription factor. Thanks to that, many cytokines can transmit their signal, which can be different based on the type of cytokine involved. There are many classes of cytokines, but we’ll analyze more in detail interleukins and interferons. Interleukins are involved in inflammatory processes and immune system signal transmission. Interleukin 2 (IL-2) activates NK and T-cells against tumor cells and, for this reason, is implemented in cancer therapy. Recombinant IL-2, Aldesleukin, is indicated for the treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma and metastatic melanoma, with patients showing tumor regression. An interesting new study has reached phase II in the United States, where Aldesleukin is being associated with Pembrolizumab, a monoclonal antibody that targets PD-1, to get better results in cancer therapy. Another use of IL-2 can be found in Denileukin Diftitox, where the receptor binding domain of IL-2 was fused to the diphtheric toxin to be used in the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and other types of cancers. Interleukin 1 (IL-1) is a key mediator for inflammatory processes and, in particular, it has a role in the genesis of rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis. For this reason, its antagonist, IL-1Ra is harnessed to treat such inflammatory diseases through Anakinra, its recombinant, non-glycosylated form. Interferons are a class of cytokines named after their ability to interfere with viruses’ infections. Interferon alpha (IFN-α) is used in many cases due to its antiproliferative action, including leukemia and melanoma. A few options for interferon-alpha treatment are available in Italy, like Pegasys, the pegylated version of recombinant interferon α-2a, belonging to the second generation of this type of drug. Pegylation grants a longer half-life and a much higher efficacy rate to this medication, used to treat hematological cancers such as essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia vera. Interferon beta (IFN-β) finds its main application in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, although it has been proven effective in reducing cancer growth. In particular, the conjugation of IFN-β-1a with Trastuzumab has been recently studied for its antitumoral effect and longer half-life compared to IFN-β-1a alone. Finally, interferon gamma (IFN-γ), the only type II interferon, is a stimulant for the immune system used to treat chronic granulomatous disease and severe, malignant osteopetrosis, as well as kidney cancer and other tumors. Despite its antitumoral activity, it is also able to induce upregulation of PD-L1 on the surface of cancer cells, making them more resistant to the action of NK cells. A recent study, although, has proved this upregulation to work against the tumor, since PD-L1 acted as a biomarker for cancer cells that were sensitive to the action of IFN-γ, which outperformed the tumor-promoting effect of PD-L1.È consentito all'utente scaricare e condividere i documenti disponibili a testo pieno in UNITESI UNIPV nel rispetto della licenza Creative Commons del tipo CC BY NC ND.
Per maggiori informazioni e per verifiche sull'eventuale disponibilità del file scrivere a: unitesi@unipv.it.
https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14239/16009