Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Rare pathogenic variants have been identified in several genes and more than 90 common loci have been associated with PD susceptibility, with GBA1 representing the most common genetic risk factor. However, most GBA1 carriers do not develop PD and the contribution of rare coding variants to the architecture of sporadic PD, as well as the factors modulating GBA1-associated risk, remain poorly understood. Moreover, monozygotic (MZ) twins discordant for PD offer a unique model to investigate post-zygotic and regulatory differences while controlling for the same genetic background. This study aimed to dissect the genetic architecture of PD through rare-variant association analysis, from unrelated cases to discordant twins. The unrelated cohorts comprised 1,055 GBA1 wild-type PD patients, 314 GBA1 variant-carrier PD patients, and 1,587 healthy controls. The twin cohort included 23 MZ pairs discordant for PD and one triplet, with matched whole-blood RNA sequencing available. Rare, potentially deleterious coding variants (gnomAD allele frequency < 1% and CADD score ≥ 20) were collapsed at gene level and tested with SKAT-O in the unrelated cohorts and with SMMAT in the twins. Functional enrichment was performed with IPA, Enrichr and Metascape, while allele-specific expression (ASE) was assessed within twin pairs. In GBA1 wild-type patients versus controls, 25 of 723 genes remained significant after FDR correction and enrichment analysis highlighted immune-related pathways, in particular interferon-γ and JAK and IL-6 signalling. By contrast, GBA1 variant-carrier patients showed signatures related to mitochondrial homeostasis, tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis and amyloid-related disease terms, with no gene surviving correction. The direct comparison between GBA1 variant-carriers and non-carriers patients suggested differences in energy metabolism, GABA catabolism and central nervous system development, along with dementia- and Alzheimer's disease-related terms driven by APP and SNCA. In the twin cohort, 969 genes carried putative post-zygotic variants; none was significant in gene-based testing, due to limited statistical power. Targeted analysis identified variants in eight PD-associated genes, including two different MCCC1 variants in two affected twins, while MFSD5 was the only gene shared with the FDR-significant set of the GBA1 wild-type cohort. Genes carrying variants in affected twins, but not in unaffected co-twins, were enriched for nervous system, central nervous system and neurodegenerative diseases, a descriptive observation that may suggest a contribution of post-zygotic events to discordance. ASE analysis revealed 111 discordant variants across 16 twin pairs, with enrichment of calcium-related pathways driven by RYR1 and RYR3 and a stop-gain MC1R variant expressed only in an affected twin. Overall, these findings suggest potentially distinct molecular patterns in GBA1 wild-type and GBA1 variant-carrier PD and illustrate the value of integrating DNA and RNA data in discordant twins. Given the small number of carriers, the limited power of the twin cohort and the exploratory nature of the enrichment analyses, the results are hypothesis-generating and require replication and functional validation.
Il Parkinson è un disturbo neurodegenerativo del movimento caratterizzato dalla progressiva perdita di neuroni dopaminergici nella substantia nigra. Varianti patogeniche rare sono state identificate in diversi geni e oltre 90 loci comuni sono associati a una maggiore predisposizione alla malattia; tra questi, GBA1 rappresenta il principale fattore di rischio genetico. Tuttavia, la maggior parte dei portatori di varianti in GBA1 non sviluppa la malattia, e il contributo di varianti rare ai casi sporadici e i fattori che modulano il rischio associato a GBA1 restano in gran parte da chiarire. I gemelli monozigoti discordanti per il Parkinson costituiscono inoltre un modello unico per indagare le differenze post-zigotiche e regolatorie a parità di base genetica. Questo studio ha indagato le basi genetiche del Parkinson tramite analisi di varianti rare, dai casi sporadici alle coppie di gemelli discordanti. La coorte sporadica comprende 1.054 pazienti wild-type per GBA1, 314 pazienti portatori di mutazioni in GBA1 e 1.586 controlli sani; la coorte di gemelli è formata da 23 coppie di gemelli monozigoti discordanti per la malattia, di cui una tripletta, per i quali erano disponibili anche i dati di sequenziamento dell'RNA da sangue intero. Le varianti rare, codificanti e potenzialmente patogeniche (frequenza allelica in gnomAD < 1% e CADD score ≥ 20) sono state aggregate a livello genico e analizzate con SKAT-O nella coorte sporadica e con SMMAT nei gemelli. L'arricchimento funzionale è stato valutato con IPA, EnrichR e Metascape, mentre l'espressione allele-specifica (ASE) è stata analizzata per ogni coppia di gemelli. Nel confronto tra pazienti GBA1 wild-type e controlli, 25 geni su 723 sono rimasti significativi dopo la correzione per test multipli (FDR), con arricchimento di pathway immunologici, in particolare legati all'interferone γ e alla via di JAK e IL-6. I pazienti portatori di GBA1 hanno mostrato arricchimento per omeostasi mitocondriale, sintesi della tetraidrobiopterina e patologie correlate alla proteina amiloide, ma nessun gene ha superato la correzione per test multipli dopo SKAT-O. Il confronto diretto tra pazienti GBA1 wild-type e mutati ha evidenziato differenze nel metabolismo energetico cellulare, nel catabolismo di GABA e nello sviluppo del sistema nervoso centrale, oltre a un arricchimento di malattie legate a demenza e Alzheimer, principalmente sostenuto dalla presenza di due geni: APP e SNCA. Nei gemelli, 969 geni presentavano varianti post-zigotiche, ma nessuno è risultato significativo a livello genico a causa della limitata potenza statistica. Analisi mirate hanno identificato la presenza di varianti post-zigotiche in otto geni associati al morbo di Parkinson, tra cui due varianti diverse in MCCC1 in due gemelli affetti e una in MFSD5, l'unico gene presente anche tra i 25 risultati significativi dopo la correzione FDR nella coorte GBA1 wild-type. I geni con varianti nei gemelli affetti ma non nei rispettivi gemelli sani sono risultati arricchiti per malattie del sistema nervoso, del sistema nervoso centrale e neurodegenerative; tale osservazione, di carattere descrittivo, potrebbe suggerire un contributo degli eventi post-zigotici alla discordanza fenotipica. L'analisi ASE ha identificato 111 varianti discordanti in 16 coppie di gemelli, arricchite per pathway dell'omeostasi del calcio (RYR1 e RYR3), e una variante stop-gain in MC1R espressa differenzialmente solo in un gemello affetto. Nel complesso, i risultati suggeriscono profili molecolari specifici per i pazienti GBA1 wild-type e mutati e dimostrano la necessità di integrare i dati di DNA e RNA nello studio dei gemelli discordanti. Tuttavia, il ridotto numero di portatori di GBA1, lo scarso potere statistico della coorte di gemelli e la natura esplorativa delle analisi di arricchimento rendono questi risultati più adatti alla generazione di ipotesi e richiedono conferma in coorti indipendenti e validazione funzionale.
Studio delle basi genetiche della malattia di Parkinson mediante l'analisi di varianti rare dai casi sporadici alle coppie di gemelli discordanti
MATTAROZZI, ILARIA
2025/2026
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Rare pathogenic variants have been identified in several genes and more than 90 common loci have been associated with PD susceptibility, with GBA1 representing the most common genetic risk factor. However, most GBA1 carriers do not develop PD and the contribution of rare coding variants to the architecture of sporadic PD, as well as the factors modulating GBA1-associated risk, remain poorly understood. Moreover, monozygotic (MZ) twins discordant for PD offer a unique model to investigate post-zygotic and regulatory differences while controlling for the same genetic background. This study aimed to dissect the genetic architecture of PD through rare-variant association analysis, from unrelated cases to discordant twins. The unrelated cohorts comprised 1,055 GBA1 wild-type PD patients, 314 GBA1 variant-carrier PD patients, and 1,587 healthy controls. The twin cohort included 23 MZ pairs discordant for PD and one triplet, with matched whole-blood RNA sequencing available. Rare, potentially deleterious coding variants (gnomAD allele frequency < 1% and CADD score ≥ 20) were collapsed at gene level and tested with SKAT-O in the unrelated cohorts and with SMMAT in the twins. Functional enrichment was performed with IPA, Enrichr and Metascape, while allele-specific expression (ASE) was assessed within twin pairs. In GBA1 wild-type patients versus controls, 25 of 723 genes remained significant after FDR correction and enrichment analysis highlighted immune-related pathways, in particular interferon-γ and JAK and IL-6 signalling. By contrast, GBA1 variant-carrier patients showed signatures related to mitochondrial homeostasis, tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis and amyloid-related disease terms, with no gene surviving correction. The direct comparison between GBA1 variant-carriers and non-carriers patients suggested differences in energy metabolism, GABA catabolism and central nervous system development, along with dementia- and Alzheimer's disease-related terms driven by APP and SNCA. In the twin cohort, 969 genes carried putative post-zygotic variants; none was significant in gene-based testing, due to limited statistical power. Targeted analysis identified variants in eight PD-associated genes, including two different MCCC1 variants in two affected twins, while MFSD5 was the only gene shared with the FDR-significant set of the GBA1 wild-type cohort. Genes carrying variants in affected twins, but not in unaffected co-twins, were enriched for nervous system, central nervous system and neurodegenerative diseases, a descriptive observation that may suggest a contribution of post-zygotic events to discordance. ASE analysis revealed 111 discordant variants across 16 twin pairs, with enrichment of calcium-related pathways driven by RYR1 and RYR3 and a stop-gain MC1R variant expressed only in an affected twin. Overall, these findings suggest potentially distinct molecular patterns in GBA1 wild-type and GBA1 variant-carrier PD and illustrate the value of integrating DNA and RNA data in discordant twins. Given the small number of carriers, the limited power of the twin cohort and the exploratory nature of the enrichment analyses, the results are hypothesis-generating and require replication and functional validation.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14239/37404