This thesis reconstructs the historical evolution of the concept of negative number, from its earliest extra-European formulations to its logical foundation in the nineteenth century, showing that the problem posed by negative numbers was never so much a problem of calculation as one of legitimacy and theoretical justification. The thread running through the inquiry is the sign rule — the claim that the product of two negative quantities is positive — taken as the point at which the tension between an effective calculating practice and a theory capable of founding it crystallises. The first chapter compares four independent mathematical traditions, distant from one another in both time and place: classical Greece, from Euclid to Diophantus, between the third century BCE and the third century CE; imperial China under the Han dynasty, between the first and the third century CE; medieval India, from Brahmagupta to Bhaskara II, between the seventh and the twelfth century; and the Arabic world, from al-Khwarizmi to al-Samaw'al, between the ninth and the twelfth century. In each of them negative quantities were conceived, accepted, or rejected in different ways: the chapter shows how this attitude depended closely on the conception of number adopted by each tradition. The second chapter follows the entry and progressive operational consolidation of negative numbers in Europe. They first appeared as debt in the commercial arithmetic of Fibonacci and Pacioli; they then passed through the theoretical insufficiency openly acknowledged by Cardano and the algebraic justification proposed by Viète. In the eighteenth century the problem became explicitly epistemological, with the positions of Agnesi in Italy and Clairaut in France. The chapter closes with the operational settlement of the early nineteenth century, due to Ruffini, Reynaud, and Carnot. The third chapter reconstructs the nineteenth-century formalisation of the concept of negative number, following the path that leads from the conventional rigour of Cauchy to Peacock and Hankel's principle of the permanence of forms. The chapter closes with Weierstrass's pair construction, which turned the sign rule from a stipulated convention into a theorem proved within a structure defined by construction. A concluding chapter examines the didactic reception of this construction in two Italian textbooks of the early twentieth century, comparing two pedagogical approaches that are independent of one another but arose in response to the same need for a foundation. The work thus reconstructs an arc that moves from resistance and practical use towards the full logical foundation of a mathematical object that, for centuries, had required far more than a simple rule of calculation before it could be accepted.
La tesi ricostruisce l'evoluzione storica del concetto di numero negativo, dalle prime concezioni extra-europee fino alla sua fondazione logica nell'Ottocento, mostrando come il problema posto dai numeri negativi non sia mai stato tanto un problema di calcolo quanto un problema di legittimità e di giustificazione teorica. Il filo conduttore dell'indagine è la regola dei segni — l'affermazione che il prodotto di due quantità negative sia positivo — assunta come punto di cristallizzazione della tensione fra una pratica di calcolo efficace e una teoria capace di fondarla. Il primo capitolo confronta quattro tradizioni matematiche indipendenti, distanti tra loro nel tempo e nello spazio: la Grecia classica di Euclide e Diofanto, tra il III secolo a.C. e il III secolo d.C.; la Cina imperiale della dinastia Han, tra il I e il III secolo d.C.; l'India medievale di Brahmagupta e Bhaskara II, tra il VII e il XII secolo; il mondo arabo di al-Khwarizmi e al-Samaw'al, tra il IX e il XII secolo. In ciascuna di esse le quantità negative furono concepite, accettate o rifiutate in modo diverso: il capitolo mostra come questo atteggiamento dipendesse strettamente dalla concezione di numero adottata da ogni tradizione. Il secondo capitolo segue l'ingresso e il progressivo consolidamento operativo dei numeri negativi in Europa. Comparvero dapprima come debito nell'aritmetica commerciale di Fibonacci e Pacioli; attraversarono poi l'insufficienza teorica dichiarata da Cardano e la giustificazione algebrica proposta da Viète. Nel Settecento il problema divenne esplicitamente epistemologico, con le posizioni di Agnesi in Italia e di Clairaut in Francia. Il capitolo si chiude con l'assestamento operativo di inizio Ottocento, affidato a Ruffini, Reynaud e Carnot. Il terzo capitolo ricostruisce infine la formalizzazione ottocentesca del concetto di numero negativo, seguendo il percorso che va dal rigore convenzionale di Cauchy al principio di permanenza delle forme di Peacock e Hankel. Il capitolo si conclude con la costruzione per coppie di Weierstrass, che trasformò la regola dei segni da convenzione stipulata a teorema dimostrato entro una struttura definita per via costruttiva. Un capitolo conclusivo esamina infine la ricezione didattica di questa costruzione in due manuali italiani di inizio Novecento, confrontando due approcci pedagogici indipendenti fra loro ma nati in risposta alla stessa esigenza di fondazione. Il lavoro ricostruisce così un arco che muove dalla resistenza e dall'uso pratico verso la piena fondazione logica di un oggetto matematico che per secoli aveva richiesto, per essere accettato, ben più di una semplice regola di calcolo.
I numeri negativi: evoluzione di un concetto attraverso i secoli
POLETTI, LUCA
2025/2026
Abstract
This thesis reconstructs the historical evolution of the concept of negative number, from its earliest extra-European formulations to its logical foundation in the nineteenth century, showing that the problem posed by negative numbers was never so much a problem of calculation as one of legitimacy and theoretical justification. The thread running through the inquiry is the sign rule — the claim that the product of two negative quantities is positive — taken as the point at which the tension between an effective calculating practice and a theory capable of founding it crystallises. The first chapter compares four independent mathematical traditions, distant from one another in both time and place: classical Greece, from Euclid to Diophantus, between the third century BCE and the third century CE; imperial China under the Han dynasty, between the first and the third century CE; medieval India, from Brahmagupta to Bhaskara II, between the seventh and the twelfth century; and the Arabic world, from al-Khwarizmi to al-Samaw'al, between the ninth and the twelfth century. In each of them negative quantities were conceived, accepted, or rejected in different ways: the chapter shows how this attitude depended closely on the conception of number adopted by each tradition. The second chapter follows the entry and progressive operational consolidation of negative numbers in Europe. They first appeared as debt in the commercial arithmetic of Fibonacci and Pacioli; they then passed through the theoretical insufficiency openly acknowledged by Cardano and the algebraic justification proposed by Viète. In the eighteenth century the problem became explicitly epistemological, with the positions of Agnesi in Italy and Clairaut in France. The chapter closes with the operational settlement of the early nineteenth century, due to Ruffini, Reynaud, and Carnot. The third chapter reconstructs the nineteenth-century formalisation of the concept of negative number, following the path that leads from the conventional rigour of Cauchy to Peacock and Hankel's principle of the permanence of forms. The chapter closes with Weierstrass's pair construction, which turned the sign rule from a stipulated convention into a theorem proved within a structure defined by construction. A concluding chapter examines the didactic reception of this construction in two Italian textbooks of the early twentieth century, comparing two pedagogical approaches that are independent of one another but arose in response to the same need for a foundation. The work thus reconstructs an arc that moves from resistance and practical use towards the full logical foundation of a mathematical object that, for centuries, had required far more than a simple rule of calculation before it could be accepted.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14239/36572